MuscleStrongPromisingMixedNot shownStrengthStrength: StrongLean mass with weight trainingLean mass with weight training: StrongStrength in older adultsStrength in older adults: MixedPower and sprintsPower and sprints: MixedBrainStrongPromisingMixedNot shownOverall thinkingOverall thinking: MixedMemoryMemory: PromisingThinking after sleep lossThinking after sleep loss: PromisingOlder adults’ thinkingOlder adults’ thinking: PromisingVegetarians’ thinkingVegetarians’ thinking: PromisingDepression, added to medicineDepression, added to medicine: MixedBrain injury, concussionBrain injury, concussion: Not shownBodyStrongPromisingMixedNot shownBone densityBone density: MixedBlood sugar controlBlood sugar control: Not shownSkinSkin: Not shown
Strong means two or more independent reviews agree and no concern about their data is unresolved. Not shown means not proven yet, not that it fails. How we graded.

What are the benefits of creatine?

Muscle evidence is strong: with weight training, creatine adds about 1.1 kg of lean mass and a small strength gain. The brain is not settled: memory looks promising, but Europe’s food safety agency said in 2024 better thinking is not established. Bone is mixed: a one-year trial found less hip bone loss; a two-year trial found no bone density gain.*1–5

By Fine Print Nutrition editors · Published · 36 studies and reviews, checked against PubMed (plus 8 expert papers, letters and opinions) · How we check

Muscle vs brain: why do the two camps disagree?

The muscle case for strength and lean mass is old, large and mostly consistent. The brain case is newer, smaller and mixed. Both can be true at once.

MuscleBrain
How big is the evidence?The 2025 strength review covers 69 studies and 1,937 people. Muscle studies date from the 1990s.*2, 6The 2024 thinking review covers 16 trials and 492 people. Most trials are small and come from a few groups.*7
How much does creatine rise?About 20% in muscle. Reviews say 20 to 40%.*8About 5 to 10% in the brain.*9
What doses were used?3 to 5 g a day, or 20 g a day for a week.*102.2 to 20 g a day in memory trials. One sleep-loss trial gave a single dose of 0.35 g per kg.*11, 12
What do the reviews find?Small, steady gains in strength and lean mass when people train.*1, 2A small memory gain. No clear gain in overall thinking.*7
Who seems to gain most?People training with weights.*13Older adults, vegetarians and people short on sleep, in small trials.*11, 12, 14

The doses differ for a reason. Muscle takes up creatine from the blood, so 3 to 5 g a day fills it.*15 The brain makes its own creatine, and few transporters carry creatine across the blood-brain barrier.*9, 16 Studies that raised brain creatine used larger or longer doses: 20 g a day for 4 weeks raised it 8.7% in 6 adults.*17 Yet 5 g a day for 6 weeks improved working memory in vegetarians.*14

Muscle, daily3 to 5 g a dayMuscle, loading week20 g a day for 5 to 7 daysBrain, memory trials2.2 to 20 g a dayBrain, sleep-loss trialone dose, about 25 g05 g10 g15 g20 g25 gMuscle, daily3 to 5 g a dayMuscle, loading week20 g a day for 5 to 7 daysBrain, memory trials2.2 to 20 g a dayBrain, sleep-loss trialone dose, about 25 g05 g10 g15 g20 g25 g

Doses used in studies. The sleep-loss dose is 0.35 g per kg, which is about 25 g for a 70 kg adult. Other sleep-loss trials gave 5 g four times a day for a week, or one dose of 0.2 g per kg.

Source: Antonio et al., 2025 (part II) and the trials in the ledgers below*9 · Free to reuse with credit to Fine Print Nutrition

The memory review found no clear link between dose and effect.*11 Studies of brain outcomes often used higher doses, but no review we read shows that a higher dose is needed, or safe over the long term beyond the study periods. Do not read this page as a reason to take 10 to 20 g a day.

Money and ties matter on both sides. The position stands of the International Society of Sports Nutrition (ISSN), the main expert papers on muscle, have authors with ties to creatine makers.*10, 15 On the brain side, the European food safety agency ruled on an application from AlzChem, a creatine maker, and found that a cause-and-effect link was not established.*3 The field’s own authors urge caution: a 2026 review by Candow and colleagues, titled “Creatine Supplementation and the Brain: Have We Put the Cart Before the Horse?”, calls the findings “preliminary and inconsistent” across conditions.*18 Each source’s funding is listed under the source list below.

What does creatine do for muscle?

With weight training, it gives a small, steady edge in strength and lean mass. This is the best-supported use. Reviews of randomized trials agree on lean mass and on strength in general, but not on strength in older adults.*1, 2

OutcomeGradeWhat trials foundTrials and peopleTypical doseKey source
StrengthStrongA small, steady edge. With training, creatine added about 1.4 kg to the bench press and 5.6 kg to the squat compared with placebo.*2Handgrip and leg press gains were not significant in the 2025 review. Gains were clearer in younger adults and in men.69 studies, 1,937 people3 to 5 g a day, or 20 g a day for 5 to 7 daysKazeminasab 2025*2Lanhers 2017*19Lanhers 2015*20
Lean mass with weight trainingStrongAbout 1.1 kg more lean mass than training alone. Two reviews agree: one in adults under 50, one in older or at-risk adults.*1The older-adult review rates its certainty low or very low. Body scans count water as lean mass, so part of the gain may be water.12 studies; 33 studies, 1,076 peopleAbout 7 g a day on averageDesai 2024*1Davies 2024*21Chilibeck 2017*13Ribeiro 2020*22
Strength in older adultsMixedReviews disagree. Some found small strength gains with training. One found no extra gain once studies with a loading phase were left out, and another found no significant gain in older adults.*2, 13, 23, 24Certainty is rated low in the 33-study review.22, 8 and 33 studies in three reviews (Chilibeck, Liu, Davies)About 0.1 g per kg a day (5 to 7 g), with training 2 to 3 days a weekChilibeck 2017*13Forbes 2021*23Liu 2025*24Kazeminasab 2025*2
Power and sprintsMixedReviews disagree. One found about 48 W more peak power on a cycling test and 1.5 cm more on a jump. A repeated-sprint review found higher average power, but no change in peak power or fatigue.*2Body mass rose 0.8 kg in the sprint trials.69 studies; 14 trialsAbout 20 g a day for 3 to 7 days (sprint review)Kazeminasab 2025*2Glaister 2022*25

Source: the reviews named in each row, checked against PubMed October 22, 2026 · Download CSV · Free to reuse with credit to Fine Print Nutrition

How big is small? Effect sizes of 0.2 to 0.3 count as small by convention, and the strength reviews found 0.24 to 0.32.*19, 20 In kilograms, that is about 1.4 kg more on the bench press and 5.6 kg more on the squat than placebo.*2

Older adults gain lean mass more reliably than strength. In women past menopause, creatine plus training added 0.37 kg of lean mass and 7.5 kg on the leg press. The benefit showed at 5 g a day or more with training. The low-dose group, 3 g a day or less, also did not train, so the review cannot separate dose from training.*26

Why it works in muscle is on our page What does creatine do?

What does creatine do for the brain?

Not much is established. The best result is memory, mostly in older adults. Overall thinking did not improve in the largest review, and in 2024 the European food safety agency said a link to better thinking is not established.*3, 7

OutcomeGradeWhat trials foundTrials and peopleTypical doseKey source
Overall thinkingMixedNo clear boost to overall thinking. In 2024 the European food safety agency (EFSA) said a cause-and-effect link was not established.*7Overall thinking and executive function, which covers skills like planning, were not significantly better. Memory gains were rated moderate certainty, and gains in attention and speed low.16 trials, 492 people2.2 to 20 g a day, depending on the trialXu 2024*7EFSA 2024*3Avgerinos 2018*27
MemoryPromisingA small gain on memory tests, found mostly in groups aged 66 to 76. Younger groups, aged 11 to 31, showed none.*11One 2024 review rates its memory result moderate certainty. A published letter questions the other review’s data, saying some was counted twice; its authors replied. Results varied a lot from trial to trial.8 trials in the memory review; 16 trials, 492 people, in the 2024 review2.2 to 20 g a day for 5 days to 24 weeksProkopidis 2023*11Xu 2024*7
Thinking after sleep lossPromisingSmall trials found less drop in thinking speed and attention after 21 to 24 hours awake.*28The two newer trials come from one research group. The ISSN says data on sleep are scarce. It is not a substitute for sleep. We rely on the ISSN review’s description of the 2006 trial.3 small trials; 29 people in the newest5 g four times a day for a week, or one dose of 0.2 to 0.35 g per kgMcMorris 2006*28Gordji-Nejad 2024*12Gordji-Nejad 2026*29
Older adults’ thinkingPromisingthin evidenceA memory gain in healthy people aged 66 to 76 (the older group in the memory review). Nothing solid yet in dementia: a 2026 review found no trials.*11This is the older group of the memory review, not a separate review. Results varied a lot between trials.A subgroup of the memory review; 0 dementia trialsVaried. One 20-person pilot used 20 g a day for 8 weeks.Prokopidis 2023*11Whitford 2026*30
Vegetarians’ thinkingPromisingIn a trial of 45 vegetarians, working memory and reasoning scores were better. In a trial of 128 women, memory was better in vegetarians but not in meat eaters.*14Both trials were small. The second found no change in verbal fluency or vigilance.2 trials, 45 and 128 people5 g a day for 6 weeks, or 20 g for 5 daysRae 2003*14Benton 2011*31
Depression, added to medicineMixedvery low certaintyIn one 8-week trial, women on an antidepressant improved more with creatine added. Across 11 trials, some in people without depression, the average gain was about 2 points on a depression scale, below the 3 points doctors count as meaningful.*32Certainty is very low, and the review found bias in favor of creatine. It is not a treatment on its own. Do not stop any medicine.11 trials, 1,093 people5 g a day for 8 weeks (the add-on trial)Lyoo 2012*32Eckert 2025*33
Brain injury, concussionNot shownOne small open-label pilot in children with traumatic brain injury found fewer headaches and a shorter stay in intensive care. We found no blinded human trials.*34Not blinded. Most of the evidence is from animals. The children had traumatic brain injury, not typical concussions. We do not suggest creatine for concussion or brain injury recovery.1 pilot, 39 children (reported twice)0.4 g per kg a day for 6 monthsSakellaris 2006*34Sakellaris 2008*35Candow 2023*16

Source: the reviews and trials named in each row, checked against PubMed October 22, 2026 · Download CSV · Free to reuse with credit to Fine Print Nutrition

The agency was reviewing an application from AlzChem, a company that makes creatine. It noted that the working-memory effect appeared at 20 g a day for 5 to 7 days but not at 2.2 to 14 g a day, and that the evidence for how it might work is weak.*3 One small trial of 45 vegetarians did find better working memory at 5 g a day for 6 weeks.*14 Looking at all the evidence, the agency still found the link was not established.*3

The best results are in people whose brains are under strain: short on sleep, older, or eating no meat. These are small trials, and the two newest sleep-loss trials come from one research group.*12, 29 Whether creatine raises brain creatine enough to matter is on our how-it-works page.

Does creatine help bones, blood sugar or skin?

Bone is the best tested of the three, and the results disagree: a 12-month trial found less bone loss, and the longest trial found no gain in bone density.*4, 5 Blood sugar and skin are not shown.

OutcomeGradeWhat trials foundTrials and peopleTypical doseKey source
Bone densityMixedsmall signal in bone shapeResults disagree. A 12-month trial of 47 women found less hip bone loss with creatine. The pooled review and the 2-year trial of 237 women past menopause found no gain in bone density. A small hint of a stronger hip bone structure.*5In the pooled review, 2 of the 5 trials found a benefit. The largest, longest trial did not.5 trials, 193 people; one 2-year trial, 237 people; one 12-month trial, 47 people0.1 to 0.14 g per kg a day, with trainingChilibeck 2023*5Forbes 2018*36Chilibeck 2015*4
Blood sugar controlNot shownOne small trial in people with type 2 diabetes: a long-term blood sugar test (HbA1c) fell 1.1 points more with creatine plus exercise than with placebo plus exercise. A review says the benefit is still unconfirmed.*37Only one trial, and it paired creatine with exercise.1 trial, 25 people5 g a day for 12 weeks, with an exercise programGualano 2011*37Solis 2021*38
SkinNot shownA 2026 review found no direct studies of oral creatine on skin. Studies of creatine creams are limited.*39Most support for creams comes from lab work, not controlled human trials.0 RCTs of oral creatine foundNo dose studiedWerpachowski 2026*39

Source: the reviews and trials named in each row, checked against PubMed October 22, 2026 · Download CSV · Free to reuse with credit to Fine Print Nutrition

The bone trial gave 237 women past menopause 0.14 g per kg a day or placebo for 2 years, with weight training 3 days a week and walking. Hip bone density did not differ between groups. Creatine did keep two measures of bone shape at the narrow part of the hip, and walking time improved. Strength did not differ.*5 That shape result is a hint, not a result. We say “no proven bone benefit yet.” The earlier 12-month trial, in 47 women, found less hip bone loss with creatine (about 1.2% against 3.9%), and 2 of the 5 trials in the pooled review were positive.*4, 36

“Not shown” does not mean it does not work. It means trials found no benefit, or fewer than two human trials exist.

What about safety?

In healthy adults at recommended doses, the expert papers call creatine safe and well tolerated. The 2017 paper says use for up to 5 years, at doses up to 30 g a day, was safe in healthy people.*10 We did not read the studies behind that line, and we do not suggest those doses. These are statements by the papers’ authors, not new analyses, and the ISSN gets support from companies that sell creatine.

The worryWhat the evidence says
KidneysThe expert papers say recommended doses do not damage healthy kidneys.*15 In US college football players taking about 16 g a day for 5 days, then 5 to 10 g a day for 21 months, kidney markers showed no clinically meaningful difference from controls.*10 The 2017 paper also mentions case reports of kidney problems in people taking creatine, sometimes with other supplements. Creatine raises creatinine slightly. That is a lab marker doctors use to check kidneys, so tell your doctor you take it. These papers do not cover people who already have kidney disease. If you have kidney disease, ask your doctor first.
Hair lossOne small 2009 study of 20 rugby players found DHT, a hormone linked to hair loss, rose 56% after a week at 25 g a day and stayed 40% above baseline on 5 g a day.*40 It did not measure hair. The ISSN noted in 2021 that no one had repeated it and that the levels stayed within normal limits.*15 A 12-week trial in 2025, with 38 men finishing, found no change in DHT or in hair measures on 5 g a day.*41 That does not rule out an effect over years in men prone to hair loss.
Water weightThe most common effect, mostly in the first days.*15 In sprint trials, body mass rose 0.79 kg.*25 Our how-it-works page covers water in detail.
Dehydration and crampsThe ISSN says creatine does not cause dehydration or muscle cramps.*15
Children and teensThe ISSN says it appears generally safe and potentially beneficial.*15 Talk to your child’s doctor first.
Pregnancy and breastfeedingWe did not review this. Ask your doctor.

How did we grade each benefit?

We used one rule for every row. The grade depends on what the human trials and reviews show, never on how popular a claim is.

GradeWhat it takesOutcomes on this page
StrongTwo or more independent meta-analyses (reviews that pool trials) agree on the direction, and no published concern about their data is unresolved.2
PromisingA benefit shows up in one meta-analysis or in at least two independent trials, but the trials are few or small, the certainty is low, or a review’s data has been questioned.4
MixedResults disagree, or the pooled effect is too small or too uncertain to call. For example, its confidence range touches zero, or it is below the size patients notice.5
Not shownTrials found no benefit, or fewer than two human trials exist.3

“Not shown” does not mean “does not work.” It means the evidence has not shown it yet.

For each outcome we picked the most recent, largest or best-reported review we could find and read. We did not read every study inside each review, and we did not run our own meta-analysis. We ran no trials.

Questions people ask

What are the benefits of creatine?
With weight training, a small, steady gain in strength and lean mass. That is the one claim with strong evidence. Memory is the most promising brain result. Bone results are mixed. Blood sugar and skin are not shown yet.See the ladder.*1, 2, 7
Does creatine help memory?
Maybe, a little. Two reviews found a small gain on memory tests, mostly in groups aged 66 to 76. Younger groups showed none in one of them. A letter says the first review double-counted some data. We rate memory promising, not proven.*7, 11, 42, 43
Can creatine help with brain fog?
Not shown. The best review of overall thinking, 16 trials in adults, found no clear gain.*7
Is creatine an IQ booster?
Not shown. One small trial of 45 young vegetarians found better scores on a reasoning test. The 2024 review found no clear gain in overall thinking.*7, 14
Can creatine help with dementia?
Not shown. A 2026 review found no trials in people with dementia. One 20-person pilot, using 20 g a day for 8 weeks, reported better thinking, but it was small.*30
How much creatine should I take to improve memory?
The memory review found no clear link between dose and effect. Memory trials used 2.2 to 20 g a day. The European food safety agency noted a working-memory effect at 20 g a day for 5 to 7 days, but not at 2.2 to 14 g a day. A small trial of vegetarians found a gain at 5 g a day for 6 weeks. Our dose page covers muscle doses.*3, 14
What type of creatine is good for memory?
All 16 trials in the 2024 review used creatine monohydrate. We did not check the form used in the other memory review.*7
Why do I feel happier on creatine?
It may not be the creatine. One 8-week trial of 52 women on the antidepressant escitalopram found more improvement with creatine added. A review of 11 trials, some in people without depression, found a small average gain, below the size doctors count as meaningful. Certainty is very low. Do not stop any medicine.*32, 33
Should a 60-year-old take creatine?
With weight training, adults with an average age of 57 to 70 gained about 1.1 to 1.4 kg more lean tissue than training alone, depending on the review, and strength results were mixed. Memory gains showed up in groups aged 66 to 76. Ask your doctor first, especially if you have kidney disease.*10, 11, 13
What are the benefits of creatine for women?
Lean mass and some strength. In women past menopause, creatine plus training added 0.37 kg of lean mass (range 0.05 to 0.69 kg) and 7.5 kg on the leg press, in 7 trials of 608 women that were not registered in advance. A 2025 review found no significant strength gain in women overall. Bone density did not change.*2, 26, 44
Does creatine help women lose belly fat?
Not shown for belly fat in particular. The review we read measured total fat: in adults under 50, creatine plus training gave 0.7 kg less fat mass than training alone.*1
What are the benefits of creatine for hair?
None shown. The worry is the opposite, hair loss. A 12-week trial in 2025 found no change in the hormone DHT or in hair measures. It was small, short and in young men.*41
How long does creatine take to work?
Muscle creatine rises about 20% in about 6 days with loading, or about 4 weeks at 3 g a day. Gains in strength and lean mass come with weeks of training. The older-adult trials we read ran 7 to 52 weeks.The chart is on our how-it-works page.*8, 13
Why did I gain 10 pounds after taking creatine?
Ten pounds (about 4.5 kg) is far more than the trials found. Sprint trials found body mass up 0.8 kg (under 2 lb), and one review found 1.1 kg (about 2.4 lb) more lean mass with training. Early water in muscle explains some of a first-week gain.More on water.*1, 15, 25
What are the disadvantages of creatine?
The most common one is early water weight. The expert papers say recommended doses do not damage healthy kidneys and do not cause dehydration or cramps. Creatine raises a kidney lab marker, so tell your doctor you take it.See safety.*15

If you decide to take it: our pick and why

Review log

  • : Published

Notes and sources

  • How we built this: we read 44 sources: 36 studies and reviews, plus 8 expert papers, letters and opinions that we list but do not count as studies. We checked each title, year, journal, PMID and DOI against PubMed on October 22, 2026. We ran no tests. We read abstracts, and full text where we could. The grade for each outcome follows the one rule under “How did we grade each benefit?”.
  • The ledgers show the effects the reviews reported. Where a review gives a range or a rounded value, we round the same way: 1.43 kg is shown as 1.4 kg, and 47.81 W as 48 W.
  • The lean-mass grade rests on two reviews that agree: Desai 2024 (adults under 50) and Davies 2024 (older or at-risk adults, certainty low or very low). Body scans count water as lean mass, so some of the gain may be water. Strength in older adults is graded Mixed because the reviews disagree.
  • The memory results are uncertain. A letter to the editor says the 2023 review counted some data twice; its authors replied, and we did not judge between them. A 2024 review reached a similar result on its own and rates its memory result moderate certainty; it rates attention and speed low. We did not judge between the 2023 review and the letter. A correction to the 2024 review was published, and we did not read what it changed.
  • The sleep-loss trials are small, and the two newest come from one research group. We describe the 2006 trial as the 2025 ISSN review does, because we did not read that trial’s abstract.
  • The depression review pooled trials in people with and without depression. Its authors say the true effect may be trivial or null.
  • The brain-creatine rise of 5 to 10% comes from one expert review (Antonio 2025, part II), which cites other papers. The single studies we read gave 8.7%, 9.2% and about 5%.
  • The safety rows are statements by the authors of the expert papers, not our own analysis. The ISSN is funded in part by supplement companies. Several of its authors have ties to creatine makers.
  • We left out claims we could not trace to a paper we read: a “Candow 2025” two-year bone trial (the null two-year trial is Chilibeck 2023), any trial of oral creatine on skin, and any statement on pregnancy or breastfeeding.
  • Funding and ties: each source below lists what we found. For many reviews the abstract does not state funding, and we did not check the full text. Next check: January 2027.
  • The ladder and the dose chart are our own illustrations, not photos. They and the data file are free to reuse with credit to Fine Print Nutrition.
  1. Desai I et al. The Effect of Creatine Supplementation on Resistance Training-Based Changes to Body Composition: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. J Strength Cond Res 2024. PMID 39074168. DOI 10.1519/JSC.0000000000004862. Funding not stated in the abstract. We did not check the full text.
  2. Kazeminasab F et al. The Effects of Creatine Supplementation on Upper- and Lower-Body Strength and Power: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Nutrients 2025. PMID 40944139. DOI 10.3390/nu17172748. Funding not stated in the abstract. We did not check the full text.
  3. EFSA Panel on Nutrition, Novel Foods and Food Allergens. Creatine and improvement in cognitive function: Evaluation of a health claim pursuant to article 13(5) of regulation (EC) No 1924/2006. EFSA J 2024. PMID 39564533. DOI 10.2903/j.efsa.2024.9100. The panel was reviewing an application from AlzChem, a creatine maker, and found that a cause-and-effect link was not established.
  4. Chilibeck PD et al. Effects of Creatine and Resistance Training on Bone Health in Postmenopausal Women. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2015. PMID 25386713. DOI 10.1249/MSS.0000000000000571. Funding not checked.
  5. Chilibeck PD et al. A 2-yr Randomized Controlled Trial on Creatine Supplementation during Exercise for Postmenopausal Bone Health. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2023. PMID 37144634. DOI 10.1249/MSS.0000000000003202. Funded by the Canadian Institutes of Health Research and the Canada Foundation for Innovation. A co-author discloses industry-sponsored creatine research and an advisory role at AlzChem.
  6. Harris RC et al. Elevation of creatine in resting and exercised muscle of normal subjects by creatine supplementation. Clin Sci (Lond) 1992. PMID 1327657. DOI 10.1042/cs0830367. Funding not stated in the abstract.
  7. Xu C et al. The effects of creatine supplementation on cognitive function in adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Front Nutr 2024. PMID 39070254. DOI 10.3389/fnut.2024.1424972. The authors declare no conflicts. A correction was published; we did not read what it changed.
  8. Hultman E et al. Muscle creatine loading in men. J Appl Physiol (1985) 1996. PMID 8828669. DOI 10.1152/jappl.1996.81.1.232. Funding not stated in the abstract.
  9. Antonio J et al. Part II. Common questions and misconceptions about creatine supplementation: what does the scientific evidence really show?. J Int Soc Sports Nutr 2025. PMID 39720835. DOI 10.1080/15502783.2024.2441760. The International Society of Sports Nutrition (ISSN) says it gets support from companies that make or sell creatine, and its chief executive is an author. Several authors sit on the advisory board of AlzChem, which makes Creapure. One author previously worked for a creatine-selling company.
  10. Kreider RB et al. International Society of Sports Nutrition position stand: safety and efficacy of creatine supplementation in exercise, sport, and medicine. J Int Soc Sports Nutr 2017. PMID 28615996. DOI 10.1186/s12970-017-0173-z. Several authors report industry roles or creatine-industry grants and consulting. Manuscript preparation was paid for by the Council for Responsible Nutrition, a trade group.
  11. Prokopidis K et al. Effects of creatine supplementation on memory in healthy individuals: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Nutr Rev 2023. PMID 35984306. DOI 10.1093/nutrit/nuac064. Funding not checked. A published letter says the review double-counted some data; the authors replied. We did not judge between them.
  12. Gordji-Nejad A et al. Single dose creatine improves cognitive performance and induces changes in cerebral high energy phosphates during sleep deprivation. Sci Rep 2024. PMID 38418482. DOI 10.1038/s41598-024-54249-9. Funded by Forschungszentrum Jülich and RWTH Aachen. Some authors disclose ties to pharmaceutical or imaging companies.
  13. Chilibeck PD et al. Effect of creatine supplementation during resistance training on lean tissue mass and muscular strength in older adults: a meta-analysis. Open Access J Sports Med 2017. PMID 29138605. DOI 10.2147/OAJSM.S123529. The authors report no conflicts of interest.
  14. Rae C et al. Oral creatine monohydrate supplementation improves brain performance: a double-blind, placebo-controlled, cross-over trial. Proc Biol Sci 2003. PMID 14561278. DOI 10.1098/rspb.2003.2492. Small trial from one group. Funding not checked.
  15. Antonio J et al. Common questions and misconceptions about creatine supplementation: what does the scientific evidence really show?. J Int Soc Sports Nutr 2021. PMID 33557850. DOI 10.1186/s12970-021-00412-w. The International Society of Sports Nutrition (ISSN) says it gets support from companies that make or sell creatine, and its chief executive is an author. Several authors sit on the advisory board of AlzChem, which makes Creapure.
  16. Candow DG et al. "Heads Up" for Creatine Supplementation and its Potential Applications for Brain Health and Function. Sports Med 2023. PMID 37368234. DOI 10.1007/s40279-023-01870-9. One author has done industry-sponsored creatine research and sits on AlzChem’s advisory board.
  17. Dechent P et al. Increase of total creatine in human brain after oral supplementation of creatine-monohydrate. Am J Physiol 1999. PMID 10484486. DOI 10.1152/ajpregu.1999.277.3.R698. Funding not checked. The abstract says 6 adults; one later review says 9, and we used the abstract.
  18. Candow DG et al. Creatine Supplementation and the Brain: Have We Put the Cart Before the Horse?. J Diet Suppl 2026. PMID 41556609. DOI 10.1080/19390211.2026.2616440. Funding not checked. A lead author has ties to creatine makers: industry-sponsored creatine research and an advisory role at AlzChem.
  19. Lanhers C et al. Creatine Supplementation and Upper Limb Strength Performance: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Sports Med 2017. PMID 27328852. DOI 10.1007/s40279-016-0571-4. Funding not stated in the abstract. We did not check the full text.
  20. Lanhers C et al. Creatine Supplementation and Lower Limb Strength Performance: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analyses. Sports Med 2015. PMID 25946994. DOI 10.1007/s40279-015-0337-4. Funding not stated in the abstract. We did not check the full text.
  21. Davies TW et al. Creatine supplementation for optimization of physical function in the patient at risk of functional disability: A systematic review and meta-analysis. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr 2024. PMID 38417175. DOI 10.1002/jpen.2607. Funding not checked. The authors rate the certainty of the evidence low or very low.
  22. Ribeiro AS et al. Creatine Supplementation Does Not Influence the Ratio Between Intracellular Water and Skeletal Muscle Mass in Resistance-Trained Men. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab 2020. PMID 32916658. DOI 10.1123/ijsnem.2020-0080. Funding not checked.
  23. Forbes SC et al. Meta-Analysis Examining the Importance of Creatine Ingestion Strategies on Lean Tissue Mass and Strength in Older Adults. Nutrients 2021. PMID 34199420. DOI 10.3390/nu13061912. No external funding. Two authors disclose industry-sponsored creatine work.
  24. Liu S et al. The impact of creatine supplementation associated with resistance training on muscular strength and lean tissue mass in the aged: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Eur Rev Aging Phys Act 2025. PMID 41388441. DOI 10.1186/s11556-025-00392-9. Funded by Chinese science grants. No competing interests.
  25. Glaister M et al. Short-Term Creatine Supplementation and Repeated Sprint Ability-A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab 2022. PMID 36041731. DOI 10.1123/ijsnem.2022-0072. Funding not checked.
  26. Naddafha S et al. Creatine monohydrate for lean mass, strength, and bone density in postmenopausal women: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Int Soc Sports Nutr 2026. PMID 42141930. DOI 10.1080/15502783.2026.2668435. The trials it covers were publicly funded, except one that had partly donated supplements. The review was not registered in advance. We did not check the authors’ industry ties or who paid for open access.
  27. Avgerinos KI et al. Effects of creatine supplementation on cognitive function of healthy individuals: A systematic review of randomized controlled trials. Exp Gerontol 2018. PMID 29704637. DOI 10.1016/j.exger.2018.04.013. Funding not checked.
  28. McMorris T et al. Effect of creatine supplementation and sleep deprivation, with mild exercise, on cognitive and psychomotor performance, mood state, and plasma concentrations of catecholamines and cortisol. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2006. PMID 16416332. DOI 10.1007/s00213-005-0269-z. We did not read this trial’s abstract; we describe it as the 2025 ISSN review does.
  29. Gordji-Nejad A et al. Single-Dose Creatine Reduces Sleep Deprivation-Induced Deterioration in Cognitive Performance. Nutrients 2026. PMID 42075005. DOI 10.3390/nu18081192. Small trial from the same research group as the 2024 trial. Funding not checked.
  30. Whitford T et al. The cognitive effects of creatine supplementation in older adults and preclinical models of dementia: A scoping review. Ageing Res Rev 2026. PMID 42668123. DOI 10.1016/j.arr.2026.103317. Funding not checked.
  31. Benton D et al. The influence of creatine supplementation on the cognitive functioning of vegetarians and omnivores. Br J Nutr 2011. PMID 21118604. DOI 10.1017/S0007114510004733. Funding not checked.
  32. Lyoo IK et al. A randomized, double-blind placebo-controlled trial of oral creatine monohydrate augmentation for enhanced response to a selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor in women with major depressive disorder. Am J Psychiatry 2012. PMID 22864465. DOI 10.1176/appi.ajp.2012.12010009. Funded by NARSAD, Korean government grants and US NIH and VA grants. One author discloses ties to pharmaceutical companies.
  33. Eckert I et al. Creatine supplementation for treating symptoms of depression: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Br J Nutr 2025. PMID 41189312. DOI 10.1017/S0007114525105588. Funding not checked. The authors say the studies show “substantial bias favouring creatine”.
  34. Sakellaris G et al. Prevention of complications related to traumatic brain injury in children and adolescents with creatine administration: an open label randomized pilot study. J Trauma 2006. PMID 16917445. DOI 10.1097/01.ta.0000230269.46108.d5. Open-label pilot. Funding not checked.
  35. Sakellaris G et al. Prevention of traumatic headache, dizziness and fatigue with creatine administration. A pilot study. Acta Paediatr 2008. PMID 18053002. DOI 10.1111/j.1651-2227.2007.00529.x. Reports on the same 39 children as the 2006 paper. Funding not checked.
  36. Forbes SC et al. Creatine Supplementation During Resistance Training Does Not Lead to Greater Bone Mineral Density in Older Humans: A Brief Meta-Analysis. Front Nutr 2018. PMID 29740583. DOI 10.3389/fnut.2018.00027. No commercial relationships declared.
  37. Gualano B et al. Creatine in type 2 diabetes: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2011. PMID 20881878. DOI 10.1249/MSS.0b013e3181fcee7d. Funding not checked.
  38. Solis MY et al. Potential of Creatine in Glucose Management and Diabetes. Nutrients 2021. PMID 33572228. DOI 10.3390/nu13020570. Funding not checked.
  39. Werpachowski N et al. The Effects of Topical and Oral Creatine on Skin Firmness and Resilience: A Review. J Clin Aesthet Dermatol 2026. PMID 42877881. DOI none listed. Funding not checked.
  40. van der Merwe J et al. Three weeks of creatine monohydrate supplementation affects dihydrotestosterone to testosterone ratio in college-aged rugby players. Clin J Sport Med 2009. PMID 19741313. DOI 10.1097/JSM.0b013e3181b8b52f. Funding not checked.
  41. Lak M et al. Does creatine cause hair loss? A 12-week randomized controlled trial. J Int Soc Sports Nutr 2025. PMID 40265319. DOI 10.1080/15502783.2025.2495229. No specific funding. A local representative of the company BPI Sports supported the study, and the authors disclose ties to the ISSN and to creatine suppliers (donated Creapure, advisory roles).
  42. Eckert I et al. Letter to the Editor: Double-counting due to inadequate statistics leads to false-positive findings in "Effects of creatine supplementation on memory in healthy individuals: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials". Nutr Rev 2023. PMID 36644917. DOI 10.1093/nutrit/nuac108. A letter to the editor about the memory review above. We did not judge it.
  43. Prokopidis K et al. Author's reply: Letter to the Editor: Double counting due to inadequate statistics leads to false-positive findings in "Effects of creatine supplementation on memory in healthy individuals: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials". Nutr Rev 2023. PMID 36644912. DOI 10.1093/nutrit/nuac111. The authors’ reply to that letter.
  44. Sharifian G et al. Impact of creatine supplementation and exercise training in older adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Eur Rev Aging Phys Act 2025. PMID 41062952. DOI 10.1186/s11556-025-00384-9. Funding not checked.